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Glossary Alternation: In linguistics, this term refers to the process of consonants and vowels mutating or changing. In Polisih, consonant or vowel alternations can occur in nouns, adjectives and verbs. These alternations follow regular patterns. Some occur in both declensions and conjugations, while others are specific to either declensions or conjugations. Animate Nouns: Animate nouns refer to animals and human beings (dead or alive), such as kot (cat), pies (dog), and student (student). The categories "inanimate" and "animate" are used exclusively when declining masculine nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numbers. See also: Inanimate Nouns, Non-Virile Nouns, Virile Nouns. Cardinal Number: A number used in counting (one, two, three, four...) Case: In Polish, nouns, adjectives and pronouns decline to show "case"; this means that the ending of the word changes, depending on its grammatical role in a sentence. There are seven cases in Polish: nominative, accusative, instrumental, genitive, dative, locative and vocative. For an explanation of how each case is used in Polish, click here. Conjugation (to conjugate): Verbs are conjugated. This means that they take different forms depending on the subject of the sentence ("I go." but "She goes.") Declension (to decline): In Polish, nouns, adjectives and pronouns decline to show "case". This means that they take different endings, depending on their grammatical role in a sentence. "Declension" is the pattern according to which a word changes; "to decline" is the process of changing a word into its various forms. Dental Consonants: Consonants that are pronounced in Polish by touching your tongue to your teeth. The dental consonants in Polish are: c, d, dz, n, s, t, z. If these letters are not pronounced with the tongue at the teeth, you will sound like you have an English accent when speaking Polish.
Devoiced: A linguistic term that refers to the lack of vibration in your vocal chords when pronouncing a consonant. Devoiced consonants in Polish are c, ć, f, ch, k, p, s, sz, ś . See voiced.
Devoiced and Voiced consonants are paired in the following way:
Direct Object: The person or thing that receives the action of a transitive verb in a sentence. In Polish the direct object is usually expressed with a noun or noun phrase in the accusative case. See also: "Case", "Transitive Verb". Ending: The part of a word which changes according to declension or conjugation patterns. Fleeting "e": In masculine nouns ending in -ec, -ek, -el, -er, -eł, and -eń, the "e" preceding the final consonant often (but not always) disappears in the process of declension. This disappearing "e" is called a fleeting "e" (e.g. Tomek - Tomka, chłopiec - chłopca). Functionally Hard Consonants: See "Hardened Consonants" Gender: Nouns in Polish can be either masculine, feminine or neuter. Sometimes the gender of a noun is determined "naturally" by the sex of the person or animal . For example, brat (brother) is maculine, while siostra (sister) is feminine. Often, however, gender is simply a grammatical category and indicates the declension pattern that the noun follows. Adjectives, pronouns, and ordinal numbers agree in gender with the nouns they modify. Hard Consonant: This term refers to the physical way in which you pronouned a specific set of consonants when speaking Polish. Hard consonants are pronounced with the middle of the tongue reaching downward, away from the roof of your mouth. The hard consonants in Polish are
See also, "Soft Consonants", "Hardened Consonants" Hard and Soft consonants are paired in the following way:
Hardened Consonants: This term refers to consonants that were historically pronounced as soft consonants but in contemporary Polish are pronounced as hard consonants. Even though these consonants are pronounced hard today, they occur in place of soft consonants in the declension of words. The hardened consonants are as follows:
See also:"Soft Consonants", "Hard Consonants" Inanimate Nouns: Inanimate nouns refer to non-living, non-breathing things, like tulipan (tulip), projektor (projector), etc. The categories "inanimate" and "animate" are used exclusively when declining masculine nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numbers. See also: "Animate Nouns", "Non-Virile Nouns" Indirect Object: The person or thing that is indirectly affected by the action of a verb in a sentence. It often names a person or thing that has been given something or for whom something has been done. In Polish, the indirect object is usually expressed by a noun or noun phrase in the dative case. See also: "Case". Inflection: Inflection is a change in the form of a word that shows the grammatical and semantic role of the word within a sentence. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numbers is called declension. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation. Non-Virile: A category of masculine nouns that refers to inanimate nouns like stół (table) and krzesło (chair) non-human animate nouns such as pies (dog) or kot (cat). Male humans ARE NOT included in this category. Noun phrase: A phrase which includes a noun, or a noun and one or more adjectives. Ordinal Number: A number used to indicate order (first, second, third...) Palatalization: Palatalization is the process of softening a consonant. See "Soft Consonants" Predicate:
A verb or verb phrase which includes any complements, objects,
or modifiers. It is one of the two main parts of a sentence, and
tells us something about the subject. See also, "subject". Sentence without an Explicit Subject : A sentence that does not contain a nominative subject. Most often such a sentence uses the dative case. This is particularly common in such Polish sentences as: Zimno mi. (I am cold.); Jest mi nudno. (I am bored.) Soft Consonant: This term refers to the physical way in which you pronounce a specific set of consonants when speaking Polish. Soft Consonants are pronounced with the middle of the tongue reaching toward the roof of your mouth. The consonants are as follows:
Stem: The basic part of a word which is repeated through the whole inflection pattern. All inflected parts of speech consist of a stem and an ending. The basic part of a word which is repeated through the whole inflection pattern of this word. Subject: The noun or noun phrase which is one of the two main parts of a sentence. In Polish, the subject is usually expressed using the nominative case. See also: "predicate", "case". Transitive Verb: Transitive verbs are verbs that take a direct object in the accusative or genitive cases, e.g. Jem kolację. (I am eating supper.); Słucham muzyki. (I am listening to music.) Virile: A category of masculine nouns that refers to male humans ONLY. This category does not include animate nouns such as pies (dog) or kot (cat). Voiced: A linguistic term that refers to the use/vibration of your vocal chords when pronouncing a consonant. The voiced consonants in Polish are b, d, dz, dż, dź, g, j, l, ł, m, n, r, w, z, ż/rz, ź
See also: "Devoiced" Zero Ending (Ø): A term which refers to the "invisible" ending of a noun that ends in a consonant. In the nominative form, these nouns look as though they do not have an ending. However, since they take endings in other cases (like the accusative, genitive, etc...), the "invisible" or "blank" ending is called a zero ending. The symbol used to designate zero endings often looks like this: Ø
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